The Relationship Between K-Pop Fandom Activities on Social Media Platform and Cultural Openness: Attitudes Toward the K-Wave as a Mediator

K-wave is a significant global phenomenon. Initially, it was limited to a subculture mainly in Asia. However, it has garnered a broader international audience through K-pop, K-movies, and K-content (Shim, 2020). Notable examples of the K-wave prominence in global mainstream culture include the Billboard chart-topping achievements of K-pop artist BTS, the Academy Award-winning film ‘Parasite,’ and the worldwide success of the OTT series ‘Squid Game.’

K-wave growth aligns with the expansion of platform media based on network technology. Through platform media, such as social media and video streaming services, the consumption of Korean content, the formation of fandoms, and the exchange of information all occur. These platforms act as catalysts that enable the K-wave to transcend geographical boundaries and simultaneously reach global audiences. The transnational dissemination of the phenomenon ‘The new K-wave,’ which began in the 2000s, has been attributed to media technologies such as social media (Byun, 2011; Yoon, 2014). Park (2012) emphasized the significant impact of online fandoms and social media on the dissemination of K-wave. Social media has transformed K-wave from a mere cultural phenomenon into a platform for community building, self-expression, and social participation, endowing it with social and political significance (Park, 2012). This implies that discussing K-wave without mentioning social media is challenging and that research should be conducted from a broader perspective.

Nevertheless, the global dissemination of cultural phenomena is not exclusive to the phenomenon known as K-wave. There have been previous instances in which culturally rooted content from a specific region has reached a broad international audience. For example, the dissemination of Western popular music through MTV and its Billboard-centered dominance (Banks, 1997; Kraidy, 2002), the global expansion of Japanese animation through fan subtitling communities, in which fans voluntarily create subtitles for media content (González, 2007; Lee, 2011), and the worldwide proliferation of Bollywood films driven by diasporic sentiments (Desai, 2006; Takhar et al., 2012) are notable examples. These cases exhibit analogous characteristics to those observed in the dissemination of K-wave to global audiences.

While these cultural phenomena also made use of digital platforms to a certain extent, the role of digital platforms in the activities of K-wave fandom is particularly transformative. A particularly striking aspect of K-wave is how K-pop artists, such as BTS, utilize social media. In the case of K-pop artists such as BTS, they make extensive use of social media platforms, including X (formerly Twitter) and Instagram (Lee et al., 2021; McLaren & Jin, 2020). For these artists, social media serves not only as a promotional tool but also as a direct communication channel with fans, where diverse content-whether photos, videos, or text-is produced and shared (Kim & Kim, 2020). This, in turn, draws fans to social media platforms, which become the foundation for fandom activities. Consequently, social media has become a crucial media for amplifying the global reach of K-wave (Kim, 2015).

These activities are not confined to social media alone but extend across various digital platforms, including video streaming services like YouTube, OTT platforms like Netflix, and fan communication platforms such as Weverse. As discussed in Jenkins’ (2006) concept of participatory culture, digital media has become a crucial foundation for the formation and operation of fandoms. The extensive use of digital platforms has enabled the explosive growth of fandoms, which in turn has significantly contributed to the global expansion of K-wave.

Previous studies on K-wave focused on its social, economic, and policy impacts within Korea (Park, 2023; Sohn, 2009). Research on K-wave should be approached from a broader perspective because K-wave facilitates the formation of fandoms among people from various countries, creating social and political meanings. This suggests that it is essential to examine K-wave’s influence from a transnational perspective.

This study explores the impact of K-wave on cultural openness, which is one aspect of global citizenship. The concept of global citizenship has been promoted by entities such as UNESCO (2015) and Oxfam (2015). Global citizenship is an identity required by global community members amid advancing globalization and is shaped by the ability to understand and accept different cultural backgrounds. As cultural openness is a cognitive belief for global citizens (Na & Chang, 2020), this study explores how K-wave fandom activities affect cultural openness, one of the core elements of global citizenship, across national boundaries.

This study specifically focuses on international K-pop fans that are active on social media. Considering that overseas K-pop fandoms exhibit enthusiasm for K-pop that is distinct from the culture of their place of birth or residence, examining cultural openness differences is deemed meaningful. In particular, because this study focuses on individuals’ perceptual aspects, it shifts the focus from viewing K-pop fandom as a singular group to examining the individuals constituting it. The level of engagement in K-pop fandom activities and the use of social media related to fandom is applied to explore the fact that experiences as K-pop fans vary among individuals, even within the same fandom community. Consequently, to examine whether there are differences in the impact of engagement in K-pop fandom activities and social media use related to fandom on perceptions of the K-wave and cultural openness, we utilize empirical data. Through this study’s findings, it will be possible to ascertain the role of K-wave in global society, which can provide implications for the future direction that K-wave should take.

METHOD

Data Collection

As K-pop continues to expand its global influence, China has emerged as one of the largest overseas markets for the genre. To investigate the engagement effect in K-pop fandom activities on the cultural openness of global fandoms, we conducted an online survey via Weibo, China’s largest social media platform. Weibo is one of China’s most active platforms for fandom engagement, with over 600 million active users. It offers various features, including real-time trends, built-in communities, and group chatting functionalities (Li et al., 2017).

We uploaded a post containing the questionnaire link on Weibo on February 5, 2024. In the post, we outlined our academic study targeting K-pop fans. We pledged to randomly select 30 respondents who completed the survey to receive a $2 incentive. As of February 9, we have received 331 valid responses.

Most participants were female (n = 310), with an average age of 20.35 years (SD = 3.85). Additionally, 29.3% reported being fans of K-pop artists for 1.5 to 3 years (n = 97). Table 1 provides further socio-demographic details.

Table 1.

Demographic Characteristics

Measures

Engagement in K-pop fandom activities refers to the behaviors individuals exhibit as fans of specific K-pop artists, as measured by a set of 13 items proposed by An and Lee (2022). These items inquire about fan activities related to consumption, information seeking, and relationship maintenance. However, we adapted them in the context of our study to focus on global fandom activities related to K-pop artists. Examples include “asking friends or others to purchase merchandise related to the K-pop artists” (M = 3.23, SD = 1.28), “purchasing products endorsed or featured in advertisements by favorite K-pop artists” (M = 3.17, SD = 1.24), and “seeking out posts related to favorite K-pop artists (such as photos, videos, and articles)” (M = 4.37, SD = .97). Respondents rated their engagement on a five-point Likert scale (1 = Never, 5 = Always). Higher mean scores indicate greater engagement in fandom activities (M = 3.24, SD = .79, Cronbach’s α = .88). Table 2 lists the remaining items.

Table 2.

Measurements of Engagement in K-pop Fandom Activities

Table 3.

Descriptive Statistics and Correlations for Main Variables

Social media use related to fandom is measured by asking respondents about the frequency of their social media activities related to their favorite K-pop stars and fandom. Respondents were asked about the frequency of seven types of behaviors, such as reading comments (M = 5.79, SD = .69), liking posts, and participating in polls (M = 5.06, SD = 1.40). The items were adapted from Escobar-Viera et al. (2018) on passive and active social media use and were measured using a six-point Likert scale (1 = Never, 6 = Several times a day). Higher scores indicate more frequent and active related fandom activities through social media.

We utilized four items adapted from Lee and Robb (2022) for cultural openness. These items include statements such as “It is interesting to deal with people from other cultures” (M = 5.88, SD = 1.10) and “It is interesting to learn about people from other cultures.” (M = 5.98, SD = 1.09). Respondents rated their agreement on a sevenpoint Likert scale. Overall, the scale demonstrated high internal consistency (M = 5.85, SD = 1.02, Cronbach’s α = .92).

K-wave impact describes the extent to which an individual is influenced not only by K-pop but also by various genres of the K-wave phenomenon, including Korean dramas, movies, and other Korean content. This study adapted the items proposed by S. Y. Park et al. (2021) to measure the impact of K-wave on global fans, resulting in a scale comprising six items (M = 2.91, SD = .61, Cronbach’s α = .82) using a four-point Likert scale (1 = Strongly disagree, 4 = Strongly agree). Examples of these items include “K-wave has influenced my image of Korea” (M = 2.88, SD = .79) and “I want to learn Korean to understand better Korean TV shows, movies, and K-pop” (M = 3.21, SD = .83).

Participants’ socio-demographic characteristics, including gender, age, and length of time being fans of K-pop artists, were utilized as control variables.

RESULTS

To explore the impact of engagement in fandom activities and social media use related on fandom on cultural openness and whether K-wave impact mediates this relationship, we utilized Hayes’s (2017) PROCESS macro within the R program. Our study involved bootstrapping 15,000 distinct samples to generate 95% confidence intervals in the analysis.

This study employed a mediation model with engagement in K-pop fandom activities and social media use related to fandom as independent variables, cultural openness as the dependent variable, and K-wave impact as the mediator while controlling for participants’ socio-demographic characteristics and length of time being fans of K-pop artists. All measured variables were analyzed as single-dimensional constructs. The results were as follows (see Table 4). Firstly, engagement in K-pop fandom activities significantly positively affected cultural openness (b = .32, SE = .07, 95% CI [.178, .444], p < .001), without considering the mediating effect. This suggests that the increased engagement in fandom-related behaviors among K-pop global fans correlates with a heightened willingness to embrace cultures different from their own. Thus, confirming H1 which posited that active engagement in K-pop fandom activities positively affects cultural openness.

Table 4.

Summary of Regression Analysis Results for Relationship Between Engagement, K-Wave Impact, and Cultural Openness

Moreover, it was found that engagement in K-pop fandom activities positively affect K-wave impact (b = .26, SE = .04, 95% CI [.182, .344], p < .001). Subsequently, K-wave impact significantly influences cultural openness (b = .26, SE = .10, 95% CI [.067, .447], p < .01). This indicates that active engagement in K-pop fandom activities results in increased K-wave impact, amplifying openness to other cultures, confirming both H2 and H3.

Engagement in K-pop fandom activities had a significant direct and indirect effect on cultural openness. Specifically, K-wave impact mediates the relationship between engagement in K-pop fandom activities and cultural openness (b = .07, 95% CI [.016, .127]). This suggests that active engagement in fandom-related activities enhances K-wave impact, fostering greater openness to other cultures. Thus, engagement in K-pop fandom activities positively affects cultural openness through K-wave impact, confirming H4.

Similarly, when social media use related to fandom was treated as an independent variable, the same positive and significant pattern was observed. Without considering mediating effect of K-wave impact, social media use related to fandom has a positive effect on cultural openness (b = .25, SE = .08, 95% CI [.103, .404], p = .001). This indicates that active social media use leads to a greater openness towards foreign cultures. When K-wave impact is introduced, social media use positively influences K-wave impact (b = .18, SE = .04, 95% CI [.097, .254], p < .001), and K-wave impact, in turn, positively affects cultural openness (b = .32, SE = .09, 95% CI [.131, .503], p = .001). K-wave impact plays an effective mediating role in this relationship (b = .06, 95% CI [.019, .105]). In response to research question 1-3, the higher the frequency of social media activities related to favorite artists and fandom, the more open individuals are toward foreign cultures. This openness towards cultures due to active social media use is mediated by the increased impact of the K-wave.

DISCUSSION

Given the expanding global influence of K-content, such as K-pop and K-dramas, this study explores the broader impact of the K-wave on global fans beyond mere entertainment. Our study specifically investigates the relationship between K-pop fans’ engagement in fandom activities, social media use related to fandom, the K-wave impact on their perceptions, and their openness to other cultures. To achieve this objective, a study was conducted on Chinese K-pop fans who engage with their fandom through Weibo, the country’s leading social media platform. Our findings suggest that active engagement in fandom activities and social media use related to fandom positively influence cultural openness, both directly and indirectly, with K-wave impact serving as a mediator. Through active engagement in fandom activities and social media use related to fandom, individuals experience heightened exposure to the K-wave, enhancing their openness to other cultures. Thus, our study confirmed that active engagement in K-pop fandom activities and active social media use related to fandom contribute to a more openminded attitude toward other cultures, which is facilitated by the impact of K-wave.

This study’s implications are as follows. First, the relationship between K-pop fandom activities and cultural openness is confirmed, thereby demonstrating that the K-wave can impact social and cultural aspects globally, extending beyond the boundaries of Korea. The cultural openness examined can be considered a more global awareness, not limited to a specific country or culture. This implies that exposure to diverse cultures through the K-wave has fostered greater openness to other cultures. These findings demonstrate that the K-wave is a significant cultural force that contributes not only to the success of the entertainment industry but also to global cultural openness and global citizenship. This indicates that the K-wave can foster an understanding and respect for global cultural diversity. In the contemporary era, as the boundaries between nations and ethnicities are becoming increasingly indistinct, the awareness of being equal citizens within a single global community is becoming increasingly significant (Park & Park, 2016). Furthermore, the concept of “cosmopolitanism,” which denotes an orientation towards larger communities beyond one’s immediate location (Pichler, 2009), is being emphasized (Cho & Kim, 2020). Transnationalism emerged in the wake of globalization and was regarded as a dominant ideology that shaped the global landscape. Concurrently, issues such as terrorism, infection, refugee, and the climate crisis have emerged as major agendas that require shared awareness and solutions beyond national boundaries (Yoon, 2020). The transboundary orientation, “global citizenship” or “cosmopolitanism,” is gaining attention in this context. This study is significant because it empirically confirmed that the K-wave can strengthen such orientations among the world’s population. It demonstrated that the K-wave plays a positive role on a global scale and derived new implications of the K-wave.

Secondly, this study was conducted on Chinese Weibo users, indicating that digital platforms such as social media can promote cultural openness. Social media serves as the infrastructure for fandom activities for overseas fans, offering a space for engagement in various fandom activities. These findings indicate that platform media, including social media, is crucial for the continued growth of the K-wave. Social media’s hyper-time, hyper-space, and hyper-connected nature affords K-wave fans an identity that transcends mere content consumers. This affects their perception of K-wave and the entire world. To emphasize the new implications of K-wave presented in this study, the active utilization of digital platforms, including social media, is essential. Based on this study’s results, practical implications can be provided for developing digital media and global communication policies concerning the K-wave.

Lastly, this study has demonstrated that active fan activities positively influence perceptions of the K-wave. This highlights the significance of creating an environment that supports diverse and active fan activities for the sustainability of the K-wave. This indicates that it is paramount to facilitate content reproduction and distribution when devising K-wave strategies. Moreover, this study’s practical implications suggest that it is necessary to devise various strategies to enable the formation of K-wave fandoms and the reproduction and distribution of content through relationships and exchanges within them.

This study has several limitations. Initially, the research was conducted through an online survey targeting Chinese K-pop fans. This makes it difficult to generalize the phenomenon of K-pop fandom in China as a universal model. Variations may occur between countries; thus, rather than understanding all global K-pop fans as a homogeneous group, future studies should employ a detailed and nuanced approach to explore the complex factors of K-pop fandom worldwide. In particular, sample designs that take into account differences in fandom across countries and cultural contexts are important, and this requires methods to collect a more representative sample rather than a nonprobability sampling. Furthermore, because online survey relies on voluntary participation, future research should adopt sampling schemes and different methodologies that better reflect the characteristics of the population to improve generalizability. Second, this study did not measure perceived cultural proximity; therefore, participants did not assess how close or similar they felt their culture was to the Korean culture. This limitation can be mentioned because the level of cultural proximity may affect the results, and it is necessary to control for the level of cultural proximity to generalize the study to global fandom. To control for these variables, future research should measure various factors, such as cultural proximity and familiarity. Third, participants were asked to self-report their perceptions of fandom engagement, K-wave impact, and cultural openness. Self-reporting is limited because it relies on participants’ subjective evaluations, which may not align with their attitudes or behaviors. Therefore, discrepancies may exist between participants’ perceptions and actual behaviors, which may affect the accuracy of the study’s findings. To increase the reliability and validity of the findings, future studies can overcome this limitation by adopting more objective and accurate measurement methods. For example, incorporating methods such as behavioral observation, longitudinal tracking, or third-party data (e.g., social media activity logs) can help overcome the limitations of selfreporting. We also expect that using a mixedmethods approach that combines self-reporting with in-depth interviews, focus groups, etc. will provide a more comprehensive understanding. Fourth, this study is limited by the fact that it only focused on Weibo users and did not measure the frequency of Weibo use. Therefore, future studies should consider variables such as frequency of Weibo use to analyze the specific impact of social media use on cultural openness. Further research will contribute to a clearer understanding of the impact of social media use on cultural openness. Lastly, the study was primarily based on participants in their 20s. This somewhat limited age range makes it difficult to generalize the findings. Given the wide range of age groups that enjoy K-pop artists, future research should consider researching the entire age range, from teens to 60s, or exploring how perceptions vary with age.

Our study examined the relationships among K-pop fans’ engagement in fandom activities, social media use related to fandom, the impact of the K-wave on their perceptions, and their openness to other cultures. By analyzing engagement in fan activities as a unified construct, we demonstrated its significant influence on both the perceived impact of the K-wave and cultural openness. However, previous research (An & Lee, 2022) has categorized engagement in fan activities into three distinct types based on the nature of the activities. Future studies could build on this foundation by exploring the nuanced differences among these three types of activities, providing deeper insights into how specific forms of fan engagement may uniquely shape fans' thoughts, attitudes, and perceptions.

Disclosure Statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.

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